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Several individual differences have been suggested to explain neutral or negative effects of feedback on learning (Hattie &amp; Timperley, 2007; Kluger &amp; DeNisi, 1996). Specifically, Fyfe and colleagues (2016) have found that feedback has been useful for students with low prior knowledge, but has mixed effects on students with high prior knowledge. In contrast to prior studies that measure prior knowledge, here we manipulate students&#39; propensity to transfer from knowledge of a more familiar concept to a more difficult one using knowledge activation (Sidney, 2020). Undergraduates (N = 138) were randomly assigned in a 3 (delayed, immediate, or no feedback) x 2 (activate prior knowledge or not) between-subjects design. Both activating prior knowledge and providing immediate feedback enhanced performance during learning trials. On a no-feedback posttest, feedback effects were moderated by knowledge activation. Importantly, combining knowledge activation with immediate feedback had a large positive impact on performance.

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Role of Prior Knowledge in Feedback Timing

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Several individual differences have been suggested to explain neutral or negative effects of feedback on learning (Hattie & Timperley, 2007; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Specifically, Fyfe and colleagues (2016) have found that feedback has been useful for students with low prior knowledge, but has mixed effects on students with high prior knowledge. In contrast to prior studies that measure prior knowledge, here we manipulate students' propensity to transfer from knowledge of a more familiar concept to a more difficult one using knowledge activation (Sidney, 2020). Undergraduates (N = 138) were randomly assigned in a 3 (delayed, immediate, or no feedback) x 2 (activate prior knowledge or not) between-subjects design. Both activating prior knowledge and providing immediate feedback enhanced performance during learning trials. On a no-feedback posttest, feedback effects were moderated by knowledge activation. Importantly, combining knowledge activation with immediate feedback had a large positive impact on performance.

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Variation in second language acquisition is evident from earliest stages. This study examined effects of learning tasks (retrieval practice, comprehension, verbal repetition) on comprehension of Turkish as a new language. Undergraduates (N = 156) engaged with Turkish spoken dialogues in a computer-assisted language learning session via Zoom, with learning tasks manipulated between-subjects. Participants completed pre/posttests assessing comprehension of Turkish number and case marking, a vocabulary test, and open-response questions gauging explicit awareness. The retrieval-practice group showed highest performance overall, after controlling for significant effects of nonverbal ability and pretest. For comprehension of number/case marking, the comprehension group performed comparably to the retrieval-practice group. For vocabulary comprehension, the verbal-repetition group performed comparably to the retrieval-practice group. Differential performance associated with learning tasks indicates benefits of testing and production and aligns with transfer-appropriate processing. As predicted by the noticing hypothesis, explicit awareness of number and case marking correlated with comprehension accuracy.

Retrieval Practice Promotes Learning of Turkish as a Foreign Language: A Computer-Assisted Language Learning Study

A notional machine is an abstract representation of how a computer works. Prior research shows that students often form incomplete or inaccurate mental models of the notional machine, reflecting misunderstandings and causing programming errors. To date, however, there is very little work on how to help students acquire accurate models of the notional machine. To fill this gap, this research focuses on novice programmers and experimentally investigates the impact of direct instruction of the notional machine compared to standard instruction that does not include the notional machine. The instruction is embedded in an online computer tutor that we implemented and compared to a version of the tutor that does not refer to the notional machine but otherwise includes the same materials. In particular, both tutor versions include instructional videos followed by self-explanation prompts. We will present data from an evaluation of both tutor versions.

Self-Explaining the Notional Machine to Improve Novice Programmers’ Learning and Mental Models, Supported by a Computer Tutor System

The dual mechanisms of control framework describes two modes of goal-directed behavior: proactive control (goal maintenance) and reactive control (goal activation on task demands). Shifts between these modes may explain variations in user performance in computing tasks. Although these mechanisms are relevant to the design of interactive systems, and particularly educational systems, their relation to human-computer interaction (HCI) is under-researched. We propose a manipulation to induce proactive or reactive control in the context of mathematical problem solving on an online tutoring system. We present two experiments where students solved problems using either proactive or reactive control. Study 1 validates the manipulation by investigating behavioral measures that reflect usage of the intended strategy and assesses whether either cognitive control mode impacted learning. Study 2 investigates whether alternating between control modes during problem solving affects student performance.

Eliciting Proactive and Reactive Control during Use of an Interactive Learning Environment

Online data collection has become a prominent option due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It is crucial to understand to what extent online studies can be compared with face-to-face studies, particularly in multimodal language research on which the modes of communication have a crucial effect. This study investigated multimodal communication across face-to-face and videoconferencing settings, focusing on gesture production and speech disfluency in a daily routine description task (N=64). Results suggested that overall disfluency rate was higher for those who communicated via videoconferencing than those who communicated face-to-face. The use of specific disfluency types also differed across the two settings, signaling an interplay between cognitive and communicative strategies. Overall gesture frequency and iconic gesture use were comparable across the two settings. Iconic gesture use negatively predicted the overall disfluency rate, regardless of the setting. Using different contexts is required to understand whether multimodal language differs between face-to-face and online communication.

Multimodal Communication in Virtual and Face-to-Face Settings: Gesture Production and Speech Disfluency

Gestures facilitate speech production by helping speakers reduce cognitive load. Studies on gesture-speech interaction mostly examined the effect of representational gestures on spatial contexts. However, abstract deictics (e.g., pointing at objects that are not visually present) might also have a role in facilitating cognitive processes. The present study investigated the effect of gestures on disfluency rates by presenting a narrative task in three conditions: spontaneous, restricted, and encouraged gesture use. We found that disfluency rates across three conditions did not significantly differ. The use of abstract deictics in the spontaneous gesture use condition was a significant predictor of disfluency rates in the gesture restricted condition. Results indicate that gestures’ facilitative roles might be manifested differently depending on the context. Abstract deictics might also benefit speakers, especially in a narrative context. Studying abstract deictics can provide new insights on gesture and speech production interaction.

Gesture and Speech Disfluency in Narrative Context: Disfluency Rates in Spontaneous, Restricted, and Encouraged Gesture Conditions

Myriad linguistic cues, subtle and otherwise, have been shown to shape thinking and reasoning. Such linguistic framing effects are attributed variously to irrational biases, affective processes, and analogy. Across two studies, we explored pragmatic reasoning (PR) as a potential unifying mechanism underlying disparate framing effects. In Study 1, we adapted a measure of PR used in attribute framing research, assessing the ability to infer information subtly communicated by a speaker’s choice of frame. Our measure captured individual differences in PR distinct from cognitive reflection and mentalizing ability. In Study 2, PR predicted the effect of identity labels on attitudes towards illegal immigration, but not other framing effects. Two such effects were driven, however, by participants’ explicit recognition of the influence of the framing language. These results suggest that framing effects may indeed be mediated by PR, but that our measure of PR does not fully capture its mediating role.

Exploring the Role of Pragmatic Reasoning in Linguistic Framing Effects

Accessibility plays a major role in speech production. Here we investigate and measure four factors that influence speakers to produce one word over another more optimal word form. Three experiments asked participants to label images of insects and instruments. Participants were incentivized to produce an accurate specific label (e.g., bee), over a more general label (e.g., insect), so that specific labels were more optimal. Each of three experiments manipulated a different factor that could influence accessibility – word frequency, priming, and interference – and all experiments additionally varied whether labels had to be produced under time pressure or not. Results showed that each variable significantly influenced the accessibility of labels: participants produced more specific labels when those labels were higher frequency, when they were primed, when a visually-similar label had not been primed, and when participants were unconstrained by time pressure. These findings demonstrate that multiple factors influence the accessibility of familiar words during production, regularly leading participants to rely on “good-enough” rather than optimal options to convey their message.

Accessibility factors that lead to good-enough language production

Sentence comprehension involves simultaneous processes such as maintaining and integrating different types of verbal representations. As such, it has been argued that sentence comprehension relies on working memory (WM). Some findings suggest that semantic (word meaning) WM rather than phonological (speech sound) WM is critical for comprehension. This study took a case-series multiple regression approach to examine the relationship between sentence comprehension and WM for 56 individuals with aphasia. We examined the independent contribution of phonological and semantic WM in predicting comprehension for higher WM target sentences relative to matched lesser WM sentences, while also controlling for single word processing. We found that only semantic WM had a significant contribution to comprehension for three contrasts. However, for the fourth contrast of trials requiring syntactic processing with those requiring only lexical processing, both WM contributions were significant. The possible backup role of phonological WM for comprehension of role reversals is discussed.

Semantic Working Memory Predicts Relative Clause Sentence Comprehension: A Case Series Approach

Neural networks struggle in continual learning settings from catastrophic forgetting: when trials are blocked, new learning can overwrite the learning from previous blocks. Humans learn effectively in these settings, in some cases even showing an advantage of blocking, suggesting the brain contains mechanisms to overcome this problem. Here, we build on previous work and show that neural networks equipped with a mechanism for cognitive control do not exhibit catastrophic forgetting when trials are blocked. We further show an advantage of blocking over interleaving when there is a bias for active maintenance in the control signal, implying a tradeoff between maintenance and the strength of control. Analyses of map-like representations learned by the networks provided additional insights into these mechanisms. Our work highlights the potential of cognitive control to aid continual learning in neural networks, and offers an explanation for the advantage of blocking that has been observed in humans.

A Neural Network Model of Continual Learning with Cognitive Control

Recent work has shown that the brain organizes abstract, non-spatial relationships between entities into map-like representations. However, an animal’s objectives often depend on only a subset of the features of the environment. Under these circumstances, cognitive control – the capacity to flexibly select the features most relevant in the current context – becomes paramount. Here, we explore the relationship between cognitive control and the geometry of map-like representations by combining fMRI with neural network modeling. We find that brain areas including hippocampus and entorhinal cortex spontaneously organize pairwise relationships into 2D map-like representations, and that this 2D structure was controlled by compressing task-irrelevant dimensions in areas of prefrontal and parietal cortex. Our neural network model reproduced these findings and additionally predicted warping in the geometry along a context-invariant axis. This prediction was confirmed with fMRI, which showed that the degree of warping was correlated with individual differences in cognitive control.

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Retrieval Practice Promotes Learning of Turkish as a Foreign Language: A Computer-Assisted Language Learning Study

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