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In this paper, we give a brief survey of the difficulties in handling the syntax of mathematical expressions in Universal Dependencies, focusing on examples from English language corpora. We first examine the prevalence and current handling of mathematical expressions in UD corpora. We then examine several strategies for how to approach the handling of syntactic dependencies for such expressions: as multi-word expressions, as a domain appropriate for code-switching, or as approximate to other types of natural language. Ultimately, we argue that mathematical expressions should primarily be analyzed as natural language, and we offer recommendations for the treatment of basic mathematical expressions as analogous to English natural language.

ACL 2023

Difficulties in Handling Mathematical Expressions in Universal Dependencies

mathematical expressions

syntactic annotation

dependency relations

corpus linguistics

universal dependencies

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The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) is the premier international scientific and professional society for people working on computational problems involving human language, a field often referred to as either computational linguistics or natural language processing.

workshop paper

High-quality labeled data is paramount to the performance of modern machine learning models. However, annotating data is a timeconsuming and costly process that requires human experts to examine large collections of raw data. For conversational agents in production settings with access to large amounts of user-agent conversations, the challenge is to decide what data should be annotated first. We consider the Natural Language Understanding (NLU) component of a conversational agent deployed in a real-world setup with limited resources. We present an active learning pipeline for offline detection of classification errors that leverages two strong classifiers. Then, we perform topic modeling on the potentially mis-classified samples to ease data analysis and to reveal error patterns. In our experiments, we show on a real world dataset that by using our method to prioritize data annotation we reach 100% of the performance annotating only 36% of the data. Finally, we present an analysis of some of the error patterns revealed and argue that our pipeline is a valuable tool to detect critical errors and reduce the workload of annotators.

An Active Learning Pipeline for NLU Error Detection in Conversational Agents

In this project, we have investigated the use of advanced machine learning methods, specifically fine-tuned large language models, for pre-annotating data for a lexical extension task, namely adding descriptive words (verbs) to an existing (but incomplete, as of yet) ontology of event types. Several research questions have been focused on, from the investigation of a possible heuristics to provide at least hints to annotators which verbs to include and which are outside the current version of the ontology, to the possible use of the automatic scores to help the annotators to be more efficient in finding a threshold for identifying verbs that cannot be assigned to any existing class and therefore they are to be used as seeds for a new class. We have also carefully examined the correlation of the automatic scores with the human annotation. While the correlation turned out to be strong, its influence on the annotation proper is modest due to its near linearity, even though the mere fact of such pre-annotation leads to relatively short annotation times.

Extending an Event-type Ontology: Adding Verbs and Classes Using Fine-tuned LLMs Suggestions

Much work in natural language processing (NLP) relies on human annotation. The majority of this implicitly assumes that annotator’s labels are temporally stable, although the reality is that human judgements are rarely con-
sistent over time. 

As a subjective annotation task, hate speech labels depend on annotator’s emotional and moral reactions to the language used to convey the message. Studies in Cognitive Science reveal a ‘foreign language effect’, whereby people take differing moral positions and perceive offensive phrases to be weaker in their second languages. Does this affect annotations as well?

We conduct an experiment to investigate the impacts of (1) time and (2) different language conditions (English and German) on measurements of intra-annotator agreement in a hate speech labelling task. While we do not observe the expected lower stability in the different language condition, we find that overall agreement
is significantly lower than is implicitly assumed in annotation tasks, which has important implications for dataset reproducibility in NLP

Temporal and Second Language Influence on Intra-Annotator Agreement and Stability in Hate Speech Labelling

Annotating cross-document event coreference links is a time-consuming and cognitively demanding task that can compromise annotation quality and efficiency. To address this, we propose a model-in-the-loop annotation approach for event coreference resolution, where a machine learning model suggests likely corefering event pairs only. We evaluate the effectiveness of this approach by first simulating the annotation process and then, using a novel annotator-centric Recall-Annotation effort trade-off metric, we compare the results of various underlying models and datasets. We finally present a method for obtaining 97\% recall while substantially reducing the workload required by a fully manual annotation process.

How Good Is the Model in Model-in-the-loop Event Coreference Resolution Annotation?

We present GENTLE, a new mixed-genre English challenge corpus totaling 17K tokens and consisting of 8 unusual text types for out-of-domain evaluation: dictionary entries, esports commentaries, legal documents, medical notes, poetry, mathematical proofs, syllabuses, and threat letters. GENTLE is manually annotated for a variety of popular NLP tasks, including syntactic dependency parsing, entity recognition, coreference resolution, and discourse parsing. We evaluate state-of-the-art NLP systems on GENTLE and find severe degradation for at least some genres in their performance on all tasks, which indicates GENTLE’s utility as an evaluation dataset for NLP systems.

GENTLE: A Genre-Diverse Multilayer Challenge Set for English NLP and Linguistic Evaluation

Within the research presented in this article, we created a new question answering benchmark database for Hungarian called MILQA. When creating the dataset, we basically followed the principles of the English SQuAD 2.0, however, like in some more recent English question answering datasets, we introduced a number of innovations beyond SQuAD: e.g., yes/no-questions, list-like answers consisting of several text spans, long answers, questions requiring calculation and other question types where you cannot simply copy the answer from the text. For all these non-extractive question types, the pragmatically adequate form of the answer was also added to make the training of generative models possible.

We implemented and evaluated a set of baseline retrieval and answer span extraction models on the dataset. BM25 performed better than any vector-based solution for retrieval. Cross-lingual transfer from English significantly improved span extraction models.


A Question Answering Benchmark Database for Hungarian

Natural Language Inference (NLI) has been a cornerstone task in evaluating language models' inferential reasoning capabilities. However, the standard three-way classification scheme used in NLI has well-known shortcomings in evaluating models' ability to capture the nuances of natural human reasoning. In this paper, we argue that the operationalization of the neutral label in current NLI datasets has low validity, is interpreted inconsistently, and that at least one important sense of neutrality is often ignored. We uncover the detrimental impact of these shortcomings, which in some cases leads to annotation datasets that actually decrease performance on downstream tasks. We compare approaches of handling annotator disagreement and identify flaws in a recent NLI dataset that designs an annotator study based on a problematic operationalization. Our findings highlight the need for a more refined evaluation framework for NLI, and we hope to spark further discussion and action in the NLP community.

No Strong Feelings One Way or Another: Re-operationalizing Neutrality in Natural Language Inference

UMR-Writer is a web-based tool for annotating semantic graphs for the Uniform Meaning Representation (UMR) scheme. UMR is a graph-based semantic representation that can be applied cross-linguistically for deep semantic analysis of text. In this work, we implemented a new keyboard interface for UMR-Writer 2.0, which adds to the original click-based interface to support faster annotation for more experienced annotators. The new interface also addresses some issues with the original click-based interface. Additionally, we demonstrate an efficient workflow for annotation project management in UMR-Writer 2.0, which has been applied to many projects.

UMR-Writer 2.0: Incorporating a New Keyboard Interface and Workflow into UMR-Writer

We investigate whether the Cambridge Gram- mar of the English Language (2002) and its extensive descriptions work well as a corpus annotation scheme. We develop annotation guidelines and in the process outline some in- teresting linguistic uncertainties that we had to resolve. To test the applicability of CGEL to real-world corpora, we conduct an interan- notator study on sentences from the English Web Treebank, showing that consistent annota- tion of even complex syntactic phenomena like gapping using the CGEL formalism is feasible. Why introduce yet another formalism for En- glish syntax? We argue that CGEL is attractive due to its exhaustive analysis of English syntac- tic phenomena, its labeling of both constituents and functions, and its accessibility. We look towards expanding CGELBank and augment- ing it with automatic conversions from existing treebanks in the future.

Unified Syntactic Annotation of English in the CGEL Framework

Patent descriptions are a crucial component of patent applications, as they are key to understanding the invention and play a significant role in securing patent grants. While discursive analyses have been undertaken for scientific articles, they have not been as thoroughly explored for patent descriptions, despite the increasing importance of Intellectual Property and the constant rise of the number of patent applications. In this study, we propose an annotation scheme containing 16 classes that allows categorizing each sentence in patent descriptions according to their discursive roles. We publish an experimental human-annotated corpus of 16 patent descriptions and analyze challenges that may be encountered in such work. This work can be base for an automated annotation and thus contribute to enriching linguistic resources in the patent domain.

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An Active Learning Pipeline for NLU Error Detection in Conversational Agents

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