United States

Cognitive processing signals can be used to improve natural language processing (NLP) tasks. However, it is not clear how these signals correlate with linguistic information. Bridging between human language processing and linguistic features has been widely studied in neurolinguistics, usually via single-variable controlled experiments with highly-controlled stimuli. Such methods not only compromises the authenticity of natural reading, but also are time-consuming and expensive. In this paper, we propose a data-driven method to investigate the relationship between cognitive processing signals and linguistic features. Specifically, we present a unified attentional framework that is composed of embedding, attention, encoding and predicting layers to selectively map cognitive processing signals to linguistic features. We define the mapping procedure as a bridging task and develop 12 bridging tasks for lexical, syntactic and semantic features. The proposed framework only requires cognitive processing signals recorded under natural reading as inputs, and can be used to detect a wide range of linguistic features with a single cognitive dataset. Observations from experiment results resonate with previous neuroscience findings. In addition to this, our experiments also reveal a number of interesting findings, such as the correlation between contextual eye-tracking features and tense of sentence.

AAAI 2022

Bridging between Cognitive Processing Signals and Linguistic Features via a Unified Attentional Network

**Welcome to ACL-IJCNLP 2021!**

The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP). 

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ACL-IJCNLP 2021

The great event is jointly organized by the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and Asian Federation of Natural Language Processing (AFNLP).

technical paper

The purpose of the AAAI conference is to promote research in artificial intelligence (AI) and scientific exchange among AI researchers, practitioners, scientists, and engineers in affiliated disciplines. 

We study the computational complexity of computing solutions for the
 straight-cut and square-cut pizza sharing problems. We show that finding an
 approximate solution is PPA-hard for the straight-cut problem, and
 PPA-complete for the square-cut problem, while finding an exact solution for
 the square-cut problem is FIXP-hard and in BU. Our PPA-hardness results apply
 even when all mass distributions are unions of non-overlapping squares, and our
 FIXP-hardness result applies even when all mass distributions are unions of
 weighted squares and right-angled triangles. We also prove that decision variants
 of the square-cut problem are hard: the approximate problem is
 NP-complete, and the exact problem is ETR-complete.

Pizza Sharing is PPA-Hard

Graph Convolutional Network (GCN) has shown remarkable potential of exploring graph representation. However, the GCN aggregating mechanism fails to generalize to networks with heterophily where most nodes have neighbors from different classes, which commonly exists in real-world networks. In order to make the propagation and aggregation mechanism of GCN suitable for both homophily and heterophily (or even their mixture), we introduce block modelling into the framework of GCN so that it can realize â€œblock-guided classified aggregationâ€, and automatically learn the corresponding aggregation rules for neighbors of different classes. By incorporating block modelling into the aggregation process, GCN is able to automatically aggregate information from homophilic and heterophilic neighbors discriminately according to their homophily degree. We compared our algorithm with state-of-art methods which deal with the heterophily problem. Empirical results demonstrate the superiority of our new approach over existing methods in heterophilic datasets while maintaining a competitive performance in homophilic datasets.

Block Modeling-Guided Graph Convolutional Neural Networks

While there has been an increasing focus on the use of game theoretic models for autonomous driving, empirical evidence shows that there are still open questions around dealing with the challenges of common knowledge assumptions as well as modeling bounded rationality. To address some of these practical challenges, we develop a framework of generalized dynamic cognitive hierarchy for both modelling naturalistic human driving behavior as well as behavior planning for autonomous vehicles (AV). This framework is built upon a rich model of level-0 behavior through the use of automata strategies, an interpretable notion of bounded rationality through safety and maneuver satisficing, and a robust response for planning. Based on evaluation on two large naturalistic datasets as well as simulation of critical traffic scenarios, we show that i) automata strategies are well suited for level-0 behavior in a dynamic level-k framework, and ii) the proposed robust response to a heterogeneous population of strategic and non-strategic reasoners can be an effective approach for game theoretic planning in AV.

Generalized Dynamic Cognitive Hierarchy Models for Strategic Driving Behavior

Large-scale pre-training has recently revolutionized vision-and-language (VL) research. Models such as LXMERT and UNITER have significantly lifted the state of the art over a wide range of VL tasks. However, the large number of parameters in such models hinders their application in practice. In parallel, work on the lottery ticket hypothesis (LTH) has shown that deep neural networks contain small matching subnetworks that can achieve on par or even better performance than the dense networks when trained in isolation. In this work, we perform the first empirical study to assess whether such trainable subnetworks also exist in pre-trained VL models. We use UNITER as the main testbed (also test on LXMERT and ViLT), and consolidate 7 representative VL tasks for experiments, including visual question answering, visual commonsense reasoning, visual entailment, referring expression comprehension, image-text retrieval, GQA, and NLVR2. Through comprehensive analysis, we summarize our main findings as follows. (i) It is difficult to find subnetworks that strictly match the performance of the full model. However, we can find relaxed winning tickets at 50%-70% sparsity that maintain 99% of the full accuracy. (ii) Subnetworks found by task-specific pruning transfer reasonably well to the other tasks, while those found on the pre-training tasks at 60%/70% sparsity transfer universally, matching 98%/96% of the full accuracy on average over all the tasks. (iii) Besides UNITER, other models such as LXMERT and ViLT can also play lottery tickets. However, the highest sparsity we can achieve for ViLT is far lower than LXMERT and UNITER (30% vs. 70%). (iv) LTH also remains relevant when using other training methods (e.g., adversarial training).

Playing Lottery Tickets with Vision and Language

Federated learning (FL) is a popular technique to train machine learning (ML) models with decentralized data. Extensive works have studied the performance of the global model; however, it is still unclear how the training process affects the final test accuracy. Exacerbating this problem is the fact that FL executions differ significantly from traditional ML with heterogeneous data characteristics across clients, involving more hyperparameters. In this work, we show that the final test accuracy of FL is dramatically affected by the early phase of the training process, i.e., FL exhibits critical learning periods, in which small gradient errors can have irrecoverable impact on the final test accuracy. To further explain this phenomenon, we generalize the trace of the Fisher Information Matrix (FIM) to FL and define a new notation called FedFIM, a quantity reflecting the local curvature of each clients from the beginning of the training in FL. Our findings suggest that the initial learning phase plays a critical role in understanding the FL performance. This is in contrast to many existing works which generally do not connect the final accuracy of FL to the early phase training.  Finally, seizing critical learning periods in FL is of independent interest and could be useful for other problems such as the choices of hyperparameters including but not limited to the number of client selected per round, batch size, so as to improve the performance of FL training and testing.

Seizing Critical Learning Periods in Federated Learning

Due to the poor generalization performance of traditional empirical risk minimization (ERM) in the case of distributional shift, Out-of-Distribution (OoD) generalization algorithms receive increasing attention. However, OoD generalization algorithms overlook the great variance in the quality of training data, which significantly compromises the accuracy of these methods. In this paper, we theoretically reveal the relationship between training data quality and algorithm performance, and analyze the optimal regularization scheme for Lipschitz regularized invariant risk minimization. A novel algorithm is proposed based on the theoretical results to alleviate the influence of low quality data at both the sample level and the domain level. The experiments on both the regression and classification benchmarks validate the effectiveness of our method with statistical significance.

Regularization Penalty Optimization for Addressing Data Quality Variance in OoD Algorithms

Robots operating in human spaces must be able to engage in natural language interaction, both understanding and executing instructions, and using conversation to resolve ambiguity and correct mistakes. To study this, we introduce TEACh, a dataset of over 3,000 human-human, interactive dialogues to complete household tasks in simulation. A Commander with access to oracle information about a task communicates in natural language with a Follower. The Follower navigates through and interacts with the environment to complete tasks varying in complexity from "Make Coffee" to "Prepare Breakfast", asking questions and getting additional information from the Commander. We propose three benchmarks using TEACh to study embodied intelligence challenges, and we evaluate initial models' abilities in dialogue understanding, language grounding, and task execution.

TEACh: Task-Driven Embodied Agents that Chat

Code understanding is an increasingly important application of Artificial Intelligence. A fundamental aspect of understanding code is understanding text about code, e.g., documentation  and forum discussions.  Pre-trained language models (e.g., BERT) are a popular approach for various NLP tasks, and there are now a variety of benchmarks, such as GLUE, to help improve the development of such models for natural language understanding. However, little is known about how well such models work on textual artifacts about code, and we are unaware of any systematic set of downstream tasks for such an evaluation.  In this paper, we derive a set of benchmarks (BLANCA - Benchmarks for LANguage models on Coding Artifacts) that assess code understanding based on tasks such as predicting the best answer to a question in a forum post, finding related forum posts, or predicting classes related in a hierarchy from class documentation.  We evaluate performance of current state-of-the-art language models on these tasks and show that there is significant improvement on each task from fine tuning.  We also show that multi-task training over BLANCA tasks help build better language models for code understanding.

Can Machines Read Coding Manuals Yet? – A Benchmark for Building Better Language Models for Code Understanding

Real world tasks are hierarchical and compositional. Tasks can be composed of multiple subtasks (or sub-goals) that are dependent on each other. These subtasks are defined in terms of entities (e.g., "apple", "pear") that can be recombined to form new subtasks (e.g., "pickup apple", and "pickup pear"). To solve these tasks efficiently, an agent must infer subtask dependencies (e.g. an agent must execute "pickup apple" before "place apple in pot"), and generalize the inferred dependencies to new subtasks (e.g. "place apple in pot" is similar to "place apple in pan"). Moreover, an agent may also need to solve unseen tasks, which can involve unseen entities. To this end, we formulate parameterized subtask graph inference (PSGI), a method for modeling subtask dependencies using first-order logic with factored entities. To facilitate this, we learn parameter attributes in a zero-shot manner, which are used as quantifiers (e.g. is_pickable(X)) for the factored subtask graph. We show this approach accurately learns the latent structure on hierarchical and compositional tasks more efficiently than prior work, and show PSGI can generalize by modelling structure on subtasks unseen during adaptation.

Learning Parameterized Task Structure for Generalization to Unseen Entities

Walrasian equilibrium is a prominent market equilibrium notion, but rarely exists in markets with indivisible items.
 We introduce a new market equilibrium notion, called two-price equilibrium (2PE). A 2PE is a relaxation of Walrasian equilibrium, where instead of a single price per item, every item has two prices: one for the item's owner and a (possibly) higher one for all other buyers. 
 Thus, a 2PE is given by a tuple (S,p_high,p_low) of an allocation S and two price vectors p_high,p_low, where every buyer i is maximally happy with her bundle S_i, given prices p_low for items in S_i and prices p_high for all other items. 
 2PE generalizes previous market equilibrium notions, such as conditional equilibrium, and is related to relaxed equilibrium notions like endowment equilibrium. 
 We define the discrepancy of a 2PE --- a measure of distance from Walrasian equilibrium --- as the sum of differences p_high_j-p_low_j over all items (normalized by social welfare).
 We show that the social welfare degrades gracefully with the discrepancy; namely, the social welfare of a 2PE with discrepancy d is at least a fraction 1/d+1 of the optimal welfare.
 We use this to establish welfare guarantees for markets with subadditive valuations over identical items.
 In particular, we show that every such market admits a 2PE with at least 1/7 of the optimal welfare.
 This is in contrast to Walrasian equilibrium or conditional equilibrium which may not even exist.
 Our techniques provide new insights regarding valuation functions over identical items, which we also use to characterize instances that admit a WE.

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