Spain

This paper presents performance measures for grammatical error correction which take into account the difficulty of error correction. To the best of our knowledge, no conventional measure has such functionality despite the fact that some errors are easy to correct and others are not. The main purpose of this work is to provide a way of determining the difficulty of error correction and to motivate researchers in the domain to attack such difficult errors. The performance measures are based on the simple idea that the more systems successfully correct an error, the easier it is considered to be. This paper presents a set of algorithms to implement this idea. It evaluates the performance measures quantitatively and qualitatively on a wide variety of corpora and systems, revealing that they agree with our intuition of correction difficulty. A scorer and difficulty weight data based on the algorithms have been made available on the web.

COLING 2020

Taking the Correction Difficulty into Account in Grammatical Error Correction Evaluation

learning assistance

performance measure

grammatical error correction

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COLING, the International Conference on Computational Linguistics, is one of the premier conferences for natural language processing and computational linguistics. Often grouped within the field of artificial intelligence, but actually pre-dating the development of artificial intelligence, advances in computational linguistics and natural language processing are now some of the major drivers behind the use of artificial intelligence for commercial and social applications – for example, on-line search, machine translation and with voice-assisted conversational devices.

First established in 1965, the biennial COLING conference is held in diverse parts of the globe and attracts participants from both top-ranked research centers and emerging countries. Today, the most important developments in our field are taking place not only in universities and academic research institutes, but also in industrial research departments and in technological startups. COLING conferences provide opportunities for all these communities to showcase their exciting developments.

COLING, the International Conference on Computational Linguistics, is one of the premier conferences for natural language processing and computational linguistics. Often grouped within the field of artificial intelligence, but actually pre-dating the development of artificial intelligence, advances in computational linguistics and natural language processing are now some of the major drivers behind the use of artificial intelligence for commercial and social applications – for example, on-line search, machine translation and with voice-assisted conversational devices.

Text input technologies for low-resource languages support literacy, content authoring, and language learning. However, tasks such as word completion pose a challenge for morphologically complex languages thanks to the combinatorial explosion of possible words. We have developed a method for morphologically-aware text input in Kunwinjku, a polysynthetic language of northern Australia. We modify an existing finite state recognizer to map input morph prefixes to morph completions, respecting the morphosyntax and morphophonology of the language. We demonstrate the portability of the method by applying it to Turkish. We show that the space of proximal morph completions is many orders of magnitude smaller than the space of full word completions for Kunwinjku. We provide a visualization of the morph completion space to enable the text completion parameters to be fine-tuned. Finally, we report on a web services deployment, along with a web interface which helps users enter morphologically complex words and which retrieves corresponding entries from the lexicon.


Interactive Word completion for Morphologically Complex Languages

In online customer service applications, multiple chatbots that are specialized in various topics are typically developed separately and are then merged with other human agents to a single platform, presenting to the users with a unified interface. Ideally the conversation can be transparently transferred between different sources of customer support so that domain-specific questions can be answered timely and this is what we coined as a Bot-Agent symbiosis. Conversation transition is a major challenge in such online customer service and our work formalises the challenge as two core problems, namely, when to transfer and which bot or agent to transfer to and introduces a deep neural networks based approach that addresses these problems. Inspired by the net promoter score (NPS), our research reveals how the problems can be effectively solved by providing user feedback and developing deep neural networks that predict the conversation category distribution and the NPS of the dialogues. Experiments on realistic data generated from an online service support platform demonstrate that the proposed approach outperforms state-of-the-art methods and shows promising perspective for transparent conversation transition.

When and Who? Conversation Transition Based on Bot-Agent Symbiosis Learning Network

The automatic feedback of school assignments is an important application of AI in education. In this work, we focus on the task of personalized multimodal feedback generation, which aims to generate personalized feedback for teachers to evaluate students’ assignments involving multimodal inputs such as images, audios, and texts. This task involves the representation and fusion of multimodal information and natural language generation, which presents the challenges from three aspects: (1) how to encode and integrate multimodal inputs; (2) how to generate feedback specific to each modality; and (3) how to fulfill personalized feedback generation. In this paper, we propose a novel Personalized Multimodal Feedback Generation Network (PMFGN) armed with a modality gate mechanism and a personalized bias mechanism to address these challenges. Extensive experiments on real-world K-12 education data show that our model significantly outperforms baselines by generating more accurate and diverse feedback. In addition, detailed ablation experiments are conducted to deepen our understanding of the proposed framework.

Personalized Multimodal Feedback Generation in Education

This paper develops and implements a scalable methodology for (a) estimating the noisiness of labels produced by a typical crowdsourcing semantic annotation task, and (b) reducing the resulting error of the labeling process by as much as 20-30% in comparison to other common labeling strategies. Importantly, this new approach to the labeling process, which we name Dynamic Automatic Conflict Resolution (DACR), does not require a ground truth dataset and is instead based on inter-project annotation inconsistencies. This makes DACR not only more accurate but also available to a broad range of labeling tasks. In what follows we present results from a text classification task performed at scale for a commercial personal assistant, and evaluate the inherent ambiguity uncovered by this annotation strategy as compared to other common labeling strategies.

mproving Human-Labeled Data through Dynamic Automatic Conflict Resolution

Conventional neural generative models tend to generate safe and generic responses which have little connection with previous utterances semantically and would disengage users in a dialog system. To generate relevant responses, we propose a method that employs two types of constraints - topical constraint and semantic constraint. Under the hypothesis that a response and its context have higher relevance when they share the same topics, the topical constraint encourages the topics of a response to match its context by conditioning response decoding on topic words' embeddings. The semantic constraint, which encourages a response to be semantically related to its context by regularizing the decoding objective function with semantic distance, is proposed. Optimal transport is applied to compute a weighted semantic distance between the representation of a response and the context. Generated responses are evaluated by automatic metrics, as well as human judgment, showing that the proposed method can generate more topic-relevant and content-rich responses than conventional models.

Topic-relevant response generation using optimal transport for an open-domain dialog system


Temporal sentence localization in videos aims to ground the best matched segment in an untrimmed video according to a given sentence query. Previous works in this field mainly rely on single-step attentional frameworks to align the temporal boundaries by a soft selection. Although they focus on the visual content relevant to the query, these attention strategies are insufficient to model complex video contents and restrict the higher-level reasoning demand for temporal relation. In this paper, we propose a novel deep rectification-modulation network (RMN), trans- forming this task into a multi-step reasoning process by repeating rectification and modulation. In each rectification-modulation layer, unlike existing methods directly conducting the cross-modal interaction, we first devise a rectification module to correct implicit attention misalignment which focuses on wrong position during the interaction process. Then, a modulation module is developed to model the frame-to-frame relation with the help of specific sentence information for better correlating and composing the video contents over time. With multiple such layers cascaded in depth, our RMN progressively refines video and query interactions, thus enabling a further precise localization. Experimental evaluations on three public datasets show that the proposed method achieves state-of-the-art performance. Extensive ablation studies are carried out for the comprehensive analysis of the proposed method.

Reasoning Step-by-Step: Temporal Sentence Localization in Videos via Deep Rectification-Modulation Network

Text summarization refers to the process that generates a shorter form of text from the source document preserving salient information. Recently, many models for text summarization have been proposed. Most of those models were evaluated using recall-oriented understudy for gisting evaluation (ROUGE) scores. However, as ROUGE scores are computed based on n-gram overlap, they do not reflect semantic meaning correspondences between generated and reference summaries. Because Korean is an agglutinative language that combines various morphemes into a word that expresses several meanings, ROUGE is not suitable for Korean summarization. In this paper, we propose evaluation metrics that reflect semantic meanings of a reference summary and the original document, Reference and Document Aware Semantic Score (RDASS). We then propose a method for improving the correlation of the metrics with human judgment. Evaluation results show that the correlation with human judgment is significantly higher for our evaluation metrics than for ROUGE scores.

Reference and Document Aware Semantic Evaluation Methods for Korean Language Summarization

Determining whether an event in a news article is a foreground or background event would be useful in many natural language processing tasks, for example, temporal relation extraction, summarization, or storyline generation. We introduce the task of distinguishing between foreground and background events in news articles as well as identifying the general temporal position of background events relative to the foreground period (past, present, future, and their combinations). We achieve good performance (0.73 F_1 for background vs. foreground and temporal position, and 0.79 F_1 for background vs. foreground only) on a dataset of news articles by leveraging discourse information in a featurized model.

Distinguishing Between Foreground and Background Events in News

Spoken language understanding (SLU), which converts user requests in natural language to machine-interpretable expressions, is becoming an essential task. The lack of training data is an important problem, especially for new system tasks, because existing SLU systems are based on statistical approaches. In this paper, we proposed to use two sources of the ``wisdom of crowds,'' crowdsourcing and knowledge community website, for improving the SLU system. We firstly collected paraphrasing variations for new system tasks through crowdsourcing as seed data, and then augmented them using similar questions from a knowledge community website. We investigated the effects of the proposed data augmentation method in SLU task, even with small seed data. In particular, the proposed architecture augmented more than 120,000 samples to improve SLU accuracies.

Improving Spoken Language Understanding by Wisdom of Crowds

In this paper, we explore a novel solution of constructing a heterogeneous graph for each instance by leveraging aspect-focused and inter-aspect contextual dependencies for the specific aspect. Based on it, we propose a novel graph-aware model with Interactive Graph Convolutional Networks (InterGCN) for aspect sentiment analysis. Specifically, an ordinary dependency graph is first constructed for each sentence over the dependency tree. Then we refine the graph by considering the syntactical dependencies between contextual words and aspect-specific words to derive the aspect-focused graph. Subsequently, the aspect-focused graph and the corresponding embedding matrix are fed into the aspect-focused GCN to capture the key aspect and contextual words. Besides, to interactively extract the dependencies between the aspect words and other aspects, an inter-aspect GCN is adopted to model the representations learned by aspect-focused GCN based on the inter-aspect graph. Hence, the model can be aware of the significant contextual and aspect words when interactively learning the sentiment features for a specific aspect. Experimental results on four benchmark datasets illustrate that our proposed model outperforms state-of-the-art methods and substantially boosts the performance in comparison with BERT.

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