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Argument generation is a fundamental NLP task that aims to automatically produce persuasive arguments.
Effective human argumentation is inherently complex and multifaceted, integrating argumentative strategies, appropriate styles, and adaptation to target audiences, etc.
However, existing studies focus on limited control signals such as topic, stance, or key aspects, failing to capture this complexity.
As LLMs advance, the lack of benchmarks evaluating multifaceted argumentative control becomes a critical bottleneck.
To address this, we introduce ArgGenBench, a novel benchmark containing complex instructions that integrate multi-dimensional control, including topic, stance, length, style, strategy, audience, and key points.
Extensive evaluation across 15 LLMs reveals significant limitations: even the best-performing model achieves only 42.7\% win rate against human-verified references.
These results highlight the challenge of controlled argument generation and establish ArgGenBench as a rigorous testbed for developing more capable systems.

ACL 2026

ArgGenBench: Benchmarking the Complex Controlled Argument Generation Capability of Large Language Models

### Welcome to ACL 2023, the 61st Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics! 
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ACL 2023

The Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) is the premier international scientific and professional society for people working on computational problems involving human language, a field often referred to as either computational linguistics or natural language processing.

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Cultural taboo safety is essential for deploying large language models (LLMs), as culturally insensitive outputs may cause offense or even social harm. However, existing cultural benchmarks primarily assess cultural knowledge or values biases, while overlooking whether LLMs can recognize and respect cultural taboos, especially when taboos are implicitly hidden in seemingly harmless questions. Besides, cultural taboos are implicit, and context-dependent, thus poss unique challenges for reliable evaluation. To address these gaps, we introduce **CulShield**, the first public benchmark dedicated to evaluating and improving the cultural taboo safety of LLMs. CulShield spans 77 countries and regions, and includes over 2,020 taboos. It evaluates models along both explicit knowledge and implicit behaviors.Experiments on several advanced LLMs (e.g., GPT-4o-mini, Gemini-2.5-pro) reveal a clear "knowledge-behavior gap": models often fail to apply known taboos during interaction. We further show that variations in linguistic context can significantly affect LLMs' cultural taboo safety. Code and data is accessible here: https://anonymous.4open.science/r/CulShield-7A0E.

The “Knowledge–Behavior Gap” in Cultural Taboo Safety of Large Language Models

The path to fully autonomous web agents is currently hindered by a critical bottleneck: their limited ability to handle CAPTCHA. Existing agent benchmarks largely ignore this practical challenge, failing to evaluate an agent's real-world capacity to solve CAPTCHA. To bridge this gap, we conduct a comprehensive analysis of real-world CAPTCHA distributions and introduce MirrorCAPTCHA, a benchmark annotated with Weighted Pass Rate and a newly proposed metric Completion Degree. MirrorCAPTCHA is designed to serve as a ``mirror'' that faithfully reflects the automation capabilities of agents in real scenarios. We filter $2095$ websites from Common Crawl, identify the CAPTCHA deployed on these sites, and cluster them into $18$ distinct categories using K-means algorithm. To ensure practicality, we extract a web subgraph from Common Crawl covering these websites and use random walks to simulate real-world CAPTCHA encounter frequencies, yielding a realistic measure of agents’ ability. Additionally, we develop a lightweight synthetic data pipeline to train Ovis2-Agent-CAPTCHA-8B, which significantly outperforms current state-of-the-art closed-source models on MirrorCAPTCHA, achieving a $9.4\%$ higher average Weighted Pass Rate and a $2.13\%$ higher average Completion Degree than the runner-up, Gemini-2.5-Pro.

MirrorCAPTCHA: Wild CAPTCHA, Wild Distribution, Wild Web-based Platform Meet Multimodal LLM Agents

Large Language Model (LLM) agents are reshaping the industrial landscape. However, most practical agents remain human-designed because tasks differ widely, making them labor-intensive to build. This situation poses a central question: \emph{can we automatically create and adapt domain agents in the wild?} While several recent approaches have sought to automate agent creation, they typically treat agent generation as a black‑box procedure and rely solely on final performance metrics to guide the process. Such strategies overlook critical evidence explaining why an agent succeeds or fails, and often require high computational costs. To address these limitations, we propose \textit{ReCreate}, an experience‑driven framework for the automatic creation of domain agents. ReCreate systematically leverages agent interaction histories, which provide rich concrete signals on both the causes of success or failure and the avenues for improvement. Specifically, we introduce an \textit{agent‑as‑optimizer} paradigm that effectively learns from experience via three key components: (i) an experience storage and retrieval mechanism for on-demand inspection; (ii) a reasoning–creating synergy pipeline that map execution experience into scaffold edits; and (iii) hierarchical updates that abstract instance-level details into reusable domain patterns. In experiments across diverse domains, ReCreate consistently outperforms human-designed agents and existing automated agent generation methods, even when starting from minimal seed scaffolds.

ReCreate: Reasoning and Creating Domain Agents Driven by Experience

Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewards (RLVR) serves as a cornerstone technique for enhancing the reasoning capabilities of Large Language Models (LLMs). However, its training is often plagued by \emph{entropy collapse}, a rapid decline in policy entropy that limits exploration and undermines training effectiveness. While recent works attempt to mitigate this issue via several heuristic entropy interventions, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this work, we conduct comprehensive theoretical and empirical analyses of entropy dynamics in RLVR, offering two main insights: (1) We derive a tight approximation for token-level entropy change at each update step, revealing four governing factors and providing a unified theoretical framework of how existing methods influence entropy; (2) We reveal a fundamental limitation of recent approaches: they rely on heuristic adjustments to one or two of these factors, leaving other relevant factors unconsidered, thus inherently limiting their effectiveness. Motivated by these findings, we propose STEER, a principled entropy-modulation method that adaptively reweighs tokens based on theoretically-estimated entropy variations. Extensive experiments across six mathematical reasoning and three coding benchmarks demonstrate that STEER effectively mitigates entropy collapse and consistently outperforms state-of-the-art baselines.

Rethinking Entropy Interventions in RLVR: An Entropy Change Perspective

Ensuring fairness in social survey simulation is critical, as biased outputs can misrepresent underrepresented groups. This issue is growing as large language models (LLMs) are increasingly used for this task. However, standard fine-tuning based on Empirical Risk Minimization (ERM) often under-optimizes minority groups, causing substantial subgroup disparities. Distributionally robust Optimization (DRO) methods reduce worst-case errors, but their strict worst-case selection can lead to noisy and unstable optimization under demographic sparsity. These issues create intertwined challenges for fairness, convergence and stability. We propose SAFO, a dynamic utility–fairness optimization framework for LLM-based survey simulation that explicitly targets both fairness and training stability. SAFO combines (i) an Optimizer that preserves mean-loss utility, (ii) an Adversary that performs temperature-controlled, EMA-smoothed and loss-driven group reweighting, and (iii) a Nash-inspired Regulator that adaptively adjusts the utility–fairness trade-off by tracking weak-group gains and collateral utility damages. Experiments on three large-scale survey datasets from China, the U.S., and Europe show that SAFO consistently improves minority performance and social-welfare metrics. It reduces worst-group gaps by up to 12.7%, maintains overall accuracy with a mean change of less than 0.3% and lowers variance across random seeds. Our code is available at https://github.com/PiLab-ZJU/SAFO.

SAFO: Stable Adaptive Fairness Optimization for LLM-Based Social Survey Simulation

Realizing endogenous narrative evolution in LLM-based multi-agent systems is hindered by the inherent stochasticity of generative emergence. In particular, long-horizon simulations suffer from social memory stacking, where conflicting relational states accumulate without resolution, and narrative-spatial dissonance, where spatial logic detaches from the evolving plot. To bridge this gap, we propose EvoSpark, a framework specifically designed to sustain logically coherent long-horizon narratives within Endogenous Interactive Agent Societies. To ensure consistency, the Stratified Narrative Memory employs a Role Socio-Evolutionary Base as living cognition, dynamically metabolizing experiences to resolve historical conflicts. Complementarily, a Generative Mise-en-Scène mechanism enforces Role-Location-Plot alignment, synchronizing character presence with the narrative flow. Underpinning these is the Unified Narrative Operation Engine, which integrates an Emergent Character Grounding Protocol to transform stochastic sparking into persistent characters. This engine establishes a substrate that expands a minimal premise into an open-ended, evolving story world. Experiments demonstrate that EvoSpark significantly outperforms baselines across diverse paradigms, enabling the sustained generation of expressive and coherent narrative experiences.

EvoSpark: Endogenous Interactive Agent Societies for Unified Long-Horizon Narrative Evolution

Recent advances in Vision-Language Models (VLMs) have enabled mobile agents to perceive and interact with real-world mobile environments based on human instructions. However, the current fully autonomous paradigm poses potential safety risks when model understanding or reasoning capabilities are insufficient. To address this challenge, we first introduce \textbf{InquireBench}, a comprehensive benchmark specifically designed to evaluate mobile agents' capabilities in safe interaction and proactive inquiry with users, encompassing 5 categories and 22 sub-categories, where most existing VLM-based agents demonstrate near-zero performance. In this paper, we aim to develop an interactive system that actively seeks human confirmation at critical decision points. To achieve this, we propose \textbf{InquireMobile}, a novel model inspired by reinforcement learning, featuring a two-stage training strategy and an interactive pre-action reasoning mechanism. Finally, our model achieves an 46.8% improvement in inquiry success rate and the best overall success rate among existing baselines on InquireBench. The project page is available at \url{https://bit-aqh.github.io/InquireMobile/homepage/}.

InquireMobile: Teaching VLM-based Mobile Agent to Request Human Assistance via Reinforcement Fine-Tuning

While Chain-of-Thought (CoT) reasoning empowers Large Language Models (LLMs) to tackle complex tasks, its reliance on discrete token decoding imposes an inherent Discreteness Bottleneck, limiting expressiveness within a restricted vocabulary space. Existing continuous reasoning approaches, such as SoftCoT, mitigate this but typically rely on external auxiliary models, resulting in complex deployment and fractured inference pipelines. To address these challenges, we propose Self-SoftCoT, a self-contained framework that enables a frozen LLM to internally generate and consume latent thoughts without external assistants. By establishing a single-stream "Thinking → Speaking" closed-loop, we decouple latent planning from explicit generation. Furthermore, we adopt Group Sequence Policy Optimization (GSPO) to stabilize learning and employ Position-Aware Independent Projection to mitigate representation homogenization. Experimental results on five reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that our method significantly improves the reasoning performance of frozen LLMs. Specifically, our Qwen2.5-based model uses only N=2 soft tokens to outperform the SoftCoT baseline (N=4), improving the average accuracy from 75.06% to 78.42%. Similarly, LLaMA-3.1 performance increases from 70.52% to 74.55%.

Self-SoftCoT: A Self-Consistent Framework via Position-Aware Latent Space Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement learning (RL) paradigms have demonstrated strong performance on reasoning-intensive tasks such as code generation. However, limited trajectory diversity often leads to diminishing returns, which constrains the achievable performance ceiling. Search-enhanced RL alleviates this issue by introducing structured exploration, which remains constrained by the single-agent policy priors. 
Meanwhile, leveraging multiple interacting policies can acquire more diverse exploratory signals, but existing approaches are typically decoupled from structured search. We propose \textbf{MARS$^2$} (Multi-Agent Reinforced Tree-Search Scaling), a unified RL framework in which multiple independently-optimized agents collaborate within a shared tree-structured search environment. MARS$^2$ models the search tree as a learnable multi-agent interaction environment, enabling heterogeneous agents to collaboratively generate and refine candidate solutions within a shared search topology. To support effective learning, we introduce a path-level group advantage formulation based on tree-consistent reward shaping, which facilitates effective credit assignment across complex search trajectories. Experiments on code generation benchmarks show that MARS$^2$ consistently improves performance across diverse model combinations and training settings, demonstrating the effectiveness of coupling multi-agent collaboration with tree search for enhancing reinforcement learning. Our code is publicly available at \url{https://github.com/TsinghuaC3I/MARTI}.

MARS$^2$: Scaling Multi-Agent Tree Search via Reinforcement Learning for Code Generation

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated strong reasoning capabilities through step-by-step chain-of-thought (CoT) reasoning. Nevertheless, at the limits of model capability, CoT often proves insufficient, and its strictly sequential nature constrains test-time scalability. A potential alternative is divide-and-conquer (DAC) reasoning, which decomposes a complex problem into subproblems to facilitate more effective exploration of the solution space. Although promising, our analysis reveals a fundamental misalignment between general-purpose post-training and DAC-style inference, which limits the model’s capacity to fully leverage this potential. To bridge this gap and fully unlock LLMs’ reasoning capabilities on the most challenging tasks, we propose an end-to-end reinforcement learning (RL) framework to enhance their DAC-style reasoning capacity. At each step, the policy decomposes a problem into a group of subproblems, solves them sequentially, and addresses the original problem conditioned on the subproblem solutions, with both decomposition and solution integrated into RL training. Under comparable training settings, our DAC-style framework endows the model with a higher performance ceiling and stronger test-time scalability, surpassing CoT by 8.6% in Pass@1 and 6.3% in Pass@32 on competition-level benchmarks. The code is available at the [provided link](https://github.com/MasterVito/DAC-RL).

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