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Semi-aquatic mammals have evolved adaptations for aquatic locomotion, an activity which differs greatly from terrestrial locomotion due to the denser and more viscous medium. Furthermore, semi-aquatic species cannot fully specialise since they need to balance their adaptations to fit their needs in both environments. Mustelids provide a valuable model for studying the evolution of such adaptations, as the group encompasses a wide range of aquatic specializations. Previous studies on their skeletal limb anatomy suggest a correlation between increased robustness and the higher biomechanical demands of swimming. To meet the elevated force requirements of swimming, we hypothesize that skeletal changes are accompanied by modifications in muscle architecture, specifically an increase in force-generating potential in distal limb muscles. To investigate this, we conducted manual dissections to measure muscle mass, fascicle length, pennation angle and to calculate the physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA). PCSA and fascicle length serve as indicators of specialization for either high force generation or increased contraction speed, providing a quantitative insight into muscle  performance potential. The next phase is to link these anatomical adaptations to specific functional demands of aquatic (and terrestrial) locomotion. Future steps involve gathering kinematic data of terrestrial and aquatic locomotion in live animals and modelling these locomotor patterns. By integrating anatomical and functional data across a gradient of aquatic specialization in mustelids (fully terrestrial ferrets &lt; infrequently aquatic minks &lt; habitually aquatic otters), this study aims to enhance our understanding of the evolution of aquatic locomotion in mustelids and, more broadly, in mammals.

SEB Conference 2025

Comparative muscle architecture in (semi-aquatic) mustelids and subsequent steps to identify musculoskeletal adaptations for aquatic locomotion

functional morphology

muscle architecture

dissection

muscle

locomotion

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SEB Conference 2026

SEB’s Annual Conference is celebrated for creating the perfect composition of research, new discoveries and collaborative connections. Be creative and innovative by exchanging ideas and knowledge with masters of biology from all over the world. 

Semi-aquatic mammals have evolved adaptations for aquatic locomotion, an activity which differs greatly from terrestrial locomotion due to the denser and more viscous medium. Furthermore, semi-aquatic species cannot fully specialise since they need to balance their adaptations to fit their needs in both environments. Mustelids provide a valuable model for studying the evolution of such adaptations, as the group encompasses a wide range of aquatic specializations. Previous studies on their skeletal limb anatomy suggest a correlation between increased robustness and the higher biomechanical demands of swimming. To meet the elevated force requirements of swimming, we hypothesize that skeletal changes are accompanied by modifications in muscle architecture, specifically an increase in force-generating potential in distal limb muscles. To investigate this, we conducted manual dissections to measure muscle mass, fascicle length, pennation angle and to calculate the physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA). PCSA and fascicle length serve as indicators of specialization for either high force generation or increased contraction speed, providing a quantitative insight into muscle  performance potential. The next phase is to link these anatomical adaptations to specific functional demands of aquatic (and terrestrial) locomotion. Future steps involve gathering kinematic data of terrestrial and aquatic locomotion in live animals and modelling these locomotor patterns. By integrating anatomical and functional data across a gradient of aquatic specialization in mustelids (fully terrestrial ferrets < infrequently aquatic minks < habitually aquatic otters), this study aims to enhance our understanding of the evolution of aquatic locomotion in mustelids and, more broadly, in mammals.

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Climate change represents one major challenge for avian species. It is characterized by an increase in average ambient temperature, but also in occurrence of extreme weather events, such as heat weaves and cold snaps. These abrupt temperature changes can modify the immediate and long-term survival prospects of nestling birds when their thermoregulatory capacities are still not fully developed. While immediate nestling survival can easily be measured, long-term survival is more challenging to evaluate. Yet, early-life telomere length has been suggested as a potential biomarker of fitness prospects. To evaluate the potential impact of changes in early-life temperature, we thus experimentally increased (ca.+2°C) and decreased (ca.-1.5°C) nestbox temperatures in wild pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca) during nestling postnatal growth, and measured nestling telomere length before fledging. Shorter telomeres were observed in individuals exposed both to an experimental heating or cooling during growth. Our results suggests that long-term survival prospects or long-term performance of individuals exposed to abrupt changes in early-life temperature may be decreased.

Warm and cool temperatures decrease early-life telomere length in wild pied flycatchers

Early development is highly sensitive to environmental stressors, with temperature shaping phenotypic trajectories in ectotherms. This study examines thermal plasticity in craniofacial development of two desert vipers,Cerastes cerastes(horned viper) and Cerastes vipera(non-horned viper). Adapted to arid extremes, they offer a model to explore how temperature-driven disruptions may cause phenotype-environment mismatches under climate change.
Eggs were incubated at 22°C, 28°C, and 34°C (15 per species/treatment) to simulate desert temperatures. Growth was tracked via photogrammetry and linear morphometrics, including snout-vent and horn length. Skeletal development was assessed using Alizarin Red staining, while qPCR quantified osteogenic markers BMP2 and RUNX2.
C. cerastesshowed strong thermal plasticity: at 34°C, horn length increased 42% vs. 28°C, with accelerated ossification and 31% higher bone density. BMP2 and RUNX2 were upregulated 3.2- and 2.8-fold, linking thermal stress to osteogenesis.C. viperashowed no significant morphological or molecular changes, highlighting species-specific vulnerability.
These results show that thermal stress during embryogenesis shapes craniofacial traits via conserved osteogenic pathways. However, exaggerated horns at high temperatures may hinder burrowing or predator avoidance inC. cerastes, illustrating potential maladaptation in warming deserts. This study integrates experimental and evolutionary approaches to predict phenotype-environment mismatches and identify molecular targets, like BMP signalling, for resilience in thermally sensitive ectotherms.
Keywords: Experimental Developmental Biology, Thermal Plasticity, Osteogenic Pathways, Climate Resilience,Thermo-morphogenesis.

Desert Vipers of the GenusCerastesas a Model for Temperature-Dependent Craniofacial Development: A Morpho-Molecular Analysis

Birds rely on their beak as a versatile, multi-functional tool during various behaviours. Depending on a bird’s ecology, a beak may be specialised for producing high bite forces (e.g., to break down hard food items) or fast oscillation rates (e.g., to produce elaborate birdsong). Previous studies indicated that high bite force and fast beak movements oppose one-another, suggesting a force-velocity trade-off. However, the underlying mechanisms contributing to this trade-off in songbirds have not been studied in detail. We hypothesise that the contractile properties of the avian jaw muscles, specifically their normalised rates of force rise during contraction and force decay during relaxation, are a limiting factor for maximal beak oscillation rates. To test our hypothesis, we measured the tetanic, isometric half-contraction and half-relaxation times of beak opener and beak closer muscles in a weak biting (canary) and a hard biting (Java sparrow) songbird in vitro. We observed that, in the harder biting species, both muscle types are slower in contraction and relaxation. Furthermore, within both species, beak closer muscles were slower in contraction and relaxation compared to beak opener muscles. We conclude that muscles which are adapted to high force production need more time to contract and relax compared to muscles producing low maximal forces. These findings suggest that the contractile properties of avian jaw musculature may contribute to the observed force-velocity trade-off in songbird beak movements. Our results further suggest that the muscles involved in forceful biting may contain a greater proportion of slow, fatigue-resistant fibres.

Contractile properties of jaw muscles contribute to force-velocity trade-off in beak movements of songbirds

Mammals with a cursorial lifestyle exhibit elongated distal limb bones and generally more hinge-like joints in the limbs. Elongated limbs and other cursorial traits have been shown to reduce locomotion costs, but the role of hinge-like joints has not been examined independently. Hinge-like joints stabilize the limb against sideways excursion and restrict movement to a single (parasagittal) plane. Thus, it has been suggested that this enhances locomotor efficiency, due to a reduction of required muscular joint control. However, this assumption has not been explicitly tested in relation to hinge-like joints, independent of other cursorial adaptations.
Here, we first aim to assess the hinge-like nature of elbows in mammals of various locomotor types. We will quantify the restriction to a single axis of rotation in the humero-radial joint of cursorial species by measuring and comparing the osteological range of pronation and supination. Next, we evaluate locomotor efficiency during steady-state locomotion by comparing in vivo ground reaction forces (GRF) in the same species. We expect cursorial species to exhibit relatively lower medio-lateral forces. This will indicate how efficiently GRF are channeled unidirectionally in the fore-aft direction during steady-state locomotion. Additionally, to determine whether increased hinge-like morphology corresponds to more unidirectional stresses on elbow bones, we will analyze anisotropy in the trabecular structure of the humerus, ulna, and radius. We expect cursorial species to exhibit lower anisotropy. This study contributes to the understanding of the interface of form and function in mammalian cursorial locomotion.

Do hinge-like joints really aid in more efficient locomotion?
Ground reaction forces and bone microstructure in cursorial mammals

Small birds use a distinct pattern of intermittent flight known as ‘flap-bounding’, distinguished by alternating phases of rapid flapping and tucked-wing ballistic movement. Previous theoretical and experimental studies suggest that this behaviour reduces energetic costs or regulates horizontal velocity during long flights. However, we observed zebra finches using flap-bounding even during short perch-to-perch flights. Furthermore, individuals converged on a consistent flight path with training, initiating the bound at a specific point in their trajectory. To investigate what objectives are driving this learned behaviour, we developed an analytical model of flap-bounding and applied a gradient-free optimisation method to test multiple hypothesized objectives: minimising energy, minimising flight time, minimising or maximising bounding duration, minimising bounding velocity, and minimising landing deceleration. By comparing the optimised trajectories to experimental data, our results suggest that the learned trajectory is not dictated by a single objective but instead represents a compromise among competing performance goals. While future work will refine the analytical model with more complexity, these findings demonstrate that during short flights, zebra finches choose trajectories that balance multiple, potentially contradictory, goals.

The finch formula: decoding flap-bounding tactics during flight training 

This study aims to create an autorotating winged aerial vehicle inspired by the samara fruit of the Dipterocarpaceae family. The samara fruit of Dipterocarpaceae can fly through autorotation after detaching from a branch. Its design may be optimized to carry more nutrients and achieve longer flight durations. Therefore, in this study, we attempted to optimize the wing shape for maximum thrust and flight duration using QMIL, a propeller design software developed by Dr. Mark Drela, and compared it with the actual wing shape of the samara fruit. A genetic algorithm was employed as the optimization method. PyAutoGUI in Python was used for the automated execution of the genetic algorithm and QMIL. The lift coefficients at 0%, 50%, and 100% positions from the wing root were used as optimization parameters. As a result, we confirmed that the propeller shape maximizing thrust and flight duration closely resembled the wing shape of the Dipterocarpaceae samara fruit. According to this result, we plan to develop an autorotating winged aerial vehicle based on the calculated optimal design.

Optimal Wing Design for Autorotating Aerial Vehicle Inspired by Samara Fruit of Dipterocarpaceae Family

Jumping performance is a key locomotor trait that is shaped by both evolutionary processes and allometric laws. It acts as predominant mode of locomotion in grasshoppers, locusts, crickets and katydids, thus playing a critical role in behaviors such as predator evasion, mate search, and navigation through complex environments. In this study, we aimed to explore how jumping performance scales allometrically and evolved across different Orthopteran lineages differing in their ecological niches. By comparing 12 Caelifera and 7 Ensifera species in a phylogenetic comparative framework, we investigated how jump kinematics vary with body size, jump actuation mechanisms, and ecological adaptation. Specifically, we assessed parameters such as maximum and mean take-off velocity, acceleration, jump height and distance, as well as jump-off force and power, while considering the influence of body mass. Preliminary results indicate that Caelifera exhibit higher jumping performance with lower body mass compared to Ensifera. We conclude that evolutionary pressures related to habitat and ecological function drives variations in jumping performance across species, with allometric scaling differing between taxa.
Keywords: Jumping performance, Allometry, Locomotor traits, Orthopteran taxa, Locomotion evolution

Evoution and Allometric Scaling of Jumping Peformance in Orthopterans

Artificial light at night (ALAN) is increasingly present in both terrestrial and aquatic systems and has been found to influence physiological and behavioural traits in wild animals in a range of habitats. In coral reef ecosystems, increasing human pressure often leads to more coastal infrastructure and boat traffic, resulting in an increase in ALAN exposure for reef organisms. Here, we aimed to investigate the effects of chronic ALAN exposure on social behaviour and risk-taking in a gregarious coral reef fish, Dascyllus trimaculatus. Wild fish were collected from sites containing both ALAN-exposed and control (ambient light levels) anemones around Moorea, French Polynesia. Fish underwent a three-chamber shoal choice test to assess diurnal sociability, followed by an emergence test to assess diurnal risk-taking behaviour. Activity levels were measured during both tests. No effect of ALAN exposure was found on daytime social behaviour or activity level. ALAN-exposed fish were, however, found to take less time to emerge from an anemone after a chase stimulus compared with control fish. The differences in risk-taking may be due to direct effects of ALAN exposure on risk-taking behaviour, or selective mortality of more risk-averse individuals, both potentially driven by increased nighttime activity levels during ALAN exposure. Increased nighttime activity may lead to increasing metabolic needs, driving increased risk-taking, or could lead to more risk-averse fish facing an increased risk of starvation or reduced growth. Our study adds to the existing literature and provides the first evidence that chronic ALAN exposure increases risk-taking behaviour in a marine fish.

Effects of artificial light-at-night on the diurnal risk-taking behaviour of a gregarious reef fish

A particularly concerning group of environmental contaminants are endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) that can interfere with the endocrine system by mimicking or blocking endogenous hormones. Disruption of hypothalamus-pituitary-axes (HP-axes) can lead to serious health problems, e.g., thyroid malfunctioning (HPT-axis), interference with reproduction (HPG-axis), impaired stress response (HPI-axis), as well as (neuro)behavioural changes. As a rule, organisms are continuously exposed to multiple EDCs simultaneously, since EDCs deriving from cosmetics, packaging, pesticides, food, and other everyday products, end up in the environment. This urges the need to assess the physiological impact of EDC mixtures and to understand the mechanisms and targets affected. The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a particularly suitable preclinical model to assess these toxicological effects for several reasons. Firstly, their rapid development can be easily non-invasively monitored due to its transparent body. Secondly, the zebrafish is a vertebrate species with a surprisingly high degree of homology to humans with respect to organ systems, physiology, genomics, and behaviour. Indeed, the model can be used to understand molecular mechanisms and targets given its fully annotated genome, ease of genomic manipulation, as well as a wide array of already available transgenic reporter lines of hypothalamus-pituitary-axes biomarkers, and well-characterised behavioural assays. Together, these provide valuable insights into molecular mechanisms and natural behaviour, survival, and reproductive success, all of which are highly relevant for understanding the impact of EDCs. In this study, we assess the impact of various EDC mixtures on the HP-axes of zebrafish from a molecular, physiological, and behavioural point of view.

Zebrafish (Danio rerio): a quick and versatile preclinical model to screen effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). 

The effects of an acute exposure at sublethal concentrations to trifluoroacetic acid (TFA), a pollutant belonging to the PFAS family, were analysed using Carcinus aestuarii collected from Mediterranean lagoons presenting different levels of pollution. The goal was to evaluate crab response to pollution and potential differences based on the site of origin. Analyses of C. maenas did not show significant differences in morphometric parameters in the hepatopancreas (B-cell vacuolization rate, vacuole surface, epithelium thickness), neither between populations nor according to pollution levels. In contrast, analyses of C. aestuarii populations exposed to TFA revealed a dose-dependent effect to pollution, leading to increased mortality, altered hemolymph osmolarity, and significant histopathological changes such as gill lamellae dilations and necrotic lesions. This study highlights the negative impact of TFA on Carcinus aestuarii and underscores the necessity to implement strict environmental regulations related to PFAS to protect marine coastal biodiversity.

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Warm and cool temperatures decrease early-life telomere length in wild pied flycatchers

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